PHDtheses :Petroleum
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Item Water Resources Assessment, Sustainable Long -Term Development and Management Strategy, West and Central Darfur States, Sudan(Alneelain University, 2021) Khalid Musa Mahmoud AliThe study area represents West and Central Darfur states, that lies in the western Sudan. The area is extremely suffering from acute water supply shortage. The area is mainly covered by basement complex rocks, with steeply slope topography. Hence the bulk of surface water lost due to surface runoff. The objectives of the current study are mainly focusing on; to assess the existence of surface and groundwater resources, to define watersheds, to recognize aquifers parameters, to evaluate groundwater potentialities in different aquifer types and to design suitable and appropriate long term water development and management strategy. The methods applied for this study include office work, fieldwork, and laboratory work. These include remote sensing & GIS, watershed analysis, hydrogeological investigations, water quality analysis, setting of groundwater resources development and management strategy. The average total annual precipitation is estimated at approximately 44 x 109 m3/year and about 85% from precipitation is lost due to high evaporation rates. The rest which is about 7 x 109 m3/year is replenishing the groundwater aquifers and flowing as surface runoff to the neighboring regions or kept as soil moisture consumed by plants. The study proved that the average discharge of Wadi Kaja is 350 million cubic meters/year. While the annual records on the discharge of Wadi Azum is 500 million cubic meters/year. From the remote sensing application, the width of alluvial aquifer ranges between 800 m and 2400 m, and it covers a total area of about 80,000 km2 in Wadi Kaja watershed. Paleozoic Sandstone has been mapped and it covers an area of 300 km2 in West Darfur and extends into Chad. Basement complex is covering 70% of the study area where limited groundwater quantities found in weathered/fractured part of these rocks. Wadi Azum fill deposits rest on weathered rock upto18 m-50 m depth and the static water levels range between 23 m- 55 m (A.G.S.L). These aquifers are of variable yields range between 14m3/hr.- 50 m3/hr. From the structural analysis the most potential fractures are identified in the NW-SE, NE-SW and in the E -W directions. Groundwater fluctuation analysis had showed continuous groundwater levels declination because of over-exploitation of the aquifers, while seasonal variations are referred to annual aquifer’s recharge and discharge. The transmissivity values for alluvial deposits, sandstone and basement rocks recorded as 8.18 m2/d, 42.7 m2/d and 12 m2/d respectively in average. The specific yield ranging between 6% to 28% for alluvial deposits, it ranges from 21% to 27% for Disa sandstone and it ranges from 1.1% to 4% for Basement Complex. Water quality analysis showed that most of chemical properties are within the allowed WHO safe drinking water standards. Which substantially proved the suitability of water for domestic, agricultural, industrial, and other uses. Groundwater budget has been prepared based on available inflows, out-flows rates, and changes in storage (ΔS). Accordingly, the total difference between input and output values are 33.47 x106m3/year for Wadi Kaja and 53.04 x 106m3/year for Wadi Azum. Hence the groundwater reserve is about 87 x106m3. The groundwater vulnerability analysis and contingency planning that has been carried out led to identifying vulnerable locations mainly due to aquifer vulnerability. The excessive abstraction rates are attributed to excessive unplanned settlement at certain locations as a result of conflict, limiting annual recovery to the aquifer in degraded climatic conditions. The consequences of vulnerability and risks on different water uses include water shortage and declination in grazing land led to even more competition over these resources. Depletion of water resources has often led to nomadic pastoralists deviating off the narrowing stock routes in search for water and pasture causing conflict between the diverse groups. Significant low rainfall rates in some parts of the study area due to climate change led to drought. Increase in population and movement, bring opposing groups in contact and competition. These facts entail vulnerability mitigation measures through appropriate water resource development and management strategy. Based on the Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs, 2030). The current water demand is calculated as 47.5x106 m3 annually, the available amount of water supply is about 24.2 106m3. The increase of water demand by 2030 is about 23.3 x106 m3, where the water reserve from water budget is 86.51 x 106m3. Hence, from the proposed development strategy in the current investigation, the additional value of water which will be obtained is about 32.17 x 106 m3, through the surface water harvesting. The remain quantity of water after satisfying 2030 demand is about 39.01 x 106 m3 could be used for contingency situations. Effective strategies have been formulated to contribute in achieving 2030 Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs) considering production of accurate data on water use and demand, integrated approach to land and water resources planning and management and integrating watershed planning. Furthermore, developing legislative measures, national classification of water resources and mechanisms that promote equal access to water for all people. Moreover, mainstreaming gender in water resources management, raising public awareness and promoting integration of sector and regional water policies (trans-boundary waters). In addition, developing strategies on institutional aspects, financial aspects which comprises market based. Moreover, adopting technological aspects which encompasses Reduction of Unaccounted for Water (UFW), recycling of water, conjunctive use of water and water demand management in the agriculture sector. Additionally, developing strategies on environmental aspects together with pollution prevention approaches and developing policies and mechanisms for disaster management which contains strategies on floods and drought prevention, mitigation, preparedness, and response are of high priority in any management plan. الخلاصة تمثل منطقة الدراسة ولايتي غرب ووسط دارفور، التي تقع في غرب السودان. تعاني المنطقة بشدة من نقص حاد في إمدادات المياه، وتغطيها بشكل اساسى مجمعات صخورالاساس، مع تضاريس شديدة الانحدار، وبالتالي تفقد الجزء الأكبر من المياه السطحية بسبب الجريان السطحي. تهدف الدراسة الحالية إلى فحص التراكيب الجيولوجية للمنطقة التى تعمل كتكوينات لحمل المياه الجوفية, تحديد خصائص خزانات المياه الجوفية, تقييم إمكانات وجود المياه الجوفية في أنواع خزانات المياه الجوفية المختلفة. تصميم استراتيجية مناسبة لتنمية المياه وادارتها على المدى الطويل. تتضمن الأساليب المطبقة على هذه الدراسة العمل المكتبي، والعمل الميداني، والعمل المختبري. وتشمل الاستشعار عن بعد ونظم المعلومات الجغرافية، وتحليل مستجمعات المياه، والتحقيقات الهيدروجيولوجية، وتحليل نوعية المياه، ووضع استراتيجية لتنمية موارد المياه بما في ذلك مراعات الحفاظ على البيئة. تم تقييم موارد المياه السطحية والجوفية، وبالتالي، يقدر متوسط إجمالي الهطول السنوي بنحو 44 × 109 م3/سنة، ويفقد حوالي 85٪ من الهطول بسبب ارتفاع معدلات التبخر. أما المتبقى الذي يبلغ حوالي 6.6 × 109 م3/سنة فيتم استهلاكه فى تغذية خزانات المياه الجوفية، و جزئيا يتدفق على شكل مياه جارية إلى المناطق المجاورة، والجزء الاخر يتم الاحتفاظ به كرطوبة تربة تستهلك بواسطة النباتات وقد أثبتت الدراسة أن متوسط تصريف وادي كاجا يبلغ 350 مليون متر مكعب سنويا. في حين تصريف وادي أزوم يبلغ 500 مليون متر مكعب في السنة. يتراوح عرض طبقة المياه الجوفية الغرينية بين 800 متر و 2400 متر وتغطي مساحة إجمالية تبلغ حوالي 000 80 كيلومتر مربع في مستجمعات المياه في وادي كجا ووادي ازوم. الحجر الرملي يغطي مساحة 300 كيلومترمربع في غرب دارفور ويمتد إلى تشاد. . تغطى صخورالاساس 70% من منطقة الدراسة حيث تحتوي صخورالاساس التى تعرضت للتعرية والتشققات علي كميات محدودة من المياه. رواسب وادي أزوم الغرينية التى تتموضع فوق صخور الاساس قد تعرضت للتعرية الى عمق 18متر - 55متر و بمنسوب مياه يتراوح بين 23 -55 متر فوق سطح البحر وبانتاجيات مختلفة تتراوح بين 14 -50 مترمكعب/الساعه. أظهر تحليل التراكيب الجيولوجية ان الكسورالمحتملة تم تحديدها فى الاتجاهات شمال غرب - جنوب شرق, شمال شرق - جنوب غرب,و باتجاه شرق – غرب. نتائج دراسة تذبذب المياه الجوفية تشير إلى أن مناسيب المياه الجوفيه آخذة في الانخفاض نتيجة الاستغلال المفرط لخزانات المياه الجوفية، في حين يشير التباين الموسمي إلى التغذية والتصريف السنويين للمياه الجوفية. تتراوح مسامية الرواسب الغرينية والحجر الرملي و الصخورالاساسية في متوسط بين 18.18 متر مربع / اليوم و 42.7 متر مربع / اليوم 12 متر مربع / اليوم على التوالي. يتراوح العائد المحدد بين 6٪ و 28٪ في الرواسب الغرينية وبين 21٪ و 27٪ في الحجر الرملى و٪ إلى 4٪ لصخورالاساسي. أشارتحليل نوعية المياه إلى أن معظم الخواص الكيميائية تقع ضمن معايير مياه الشرب المأمونة المسموح بها لدى منظمة الصحة العالمية، وأثبتت إلى حد كبير صلاحية المياه للاستخدامات المنزلية والزراعية والصناعية والسياحية وغيرها، تم إعداد ميزانية المياه الجوفية بناءً على التغذية السنوية للمياه الجوفية والاستهلاك السنوى للمياه الجوفية والتغيرات في تخزين المياه الجوفية، وبالتالي أظهر الفرق الكلي بين المدخلات والمخرجات (33.47×106 م 3 / سنة لوادى كجا 53.04×106م 3 / سنة لوادى ازوم) مما يوفر احتياطى من المياه الجوفية قدره86.51 × 106 م 3 / سنة. تم تحليل مواطن ضعف المياه الجوفية والتخطيط اللازم للطوارى وقد خلص الى تحديد المواقع المعرضة للخطر بسبب ضعف خزانات المياه الجوفية و التي تشمل معدلات استخراج المياه الجوفية بشكل مكثف. بسبب التوطين والتسكين غير المخطط في بعض المواقع نتيجة للنزاعات التي حدت من اعادة التغذية السنوية لخزانات المياه الجوفية في ظل الظروف المناخية المتدهورة. من بين عواقب الضعف والمخاطرعلى مختلف استخدامات المياه, شح المياه، وانخفاض الأراضي الصالحه للمرعى التي أدت إلى زيادة التنافس على هذه الموارد، وكثيرا ما أدى نضوب موارد المياه إلى انحراف الرعاة و الرحل عن الطرق الضيقة المخصصه للماشية، بحثا عن المياه والمراعي، مما يتسبب في نشوب نزاع بين مختلف المجموعات. كذلك أدت معدلات هطول الأمطار المنخفضة في بعض أجزاء منطقة الدراسة إلى الجفاف، وزيادة عدد السكان وحركتهم، وتعرض المجموعات المتنازعة للتماس والمنافسة، الأمر الذي يستوجب اتخاذ تدابير لتخفيف حدة ضعف موارد المياه من خلال وضع استراتيجية مناسبة لتنمية المياه وإدارتها. استناداً إلى أهداف التنمية المستدامة تم إجراء تحليل العرض والطلب لإمدادات المياه الحالية لعام 2020 والطلب المستقبلي على المياه لعام 2030 و جاءت النتيجة كالاتي: 24.18 × 106 م 3 / سنة و 47.48 × 106 م 3 / سنة على التوالي ، مما يكشف عن زيادة في الطلب للمياه فى العام 2030 قدره 23.30 × 106م 3 / سنة، كما ان احتياطى المياه حسب نتائج ميزانية المياه التى تم اجرائها هو 86.51 × 106 متر مكعب،لاستخدامات المياه المختلفة. من الاستراتيجية الإنمائية المقترحة في التحقيق الحالي، تبلغ القيمة الإضافية للمياه التي سيتم الحصول عليها حوالي 32.17 × 106 متر مكعب ، من خلال حصاد المياه السطحية فان كمية المياه المتبقية بعد تلبية الطلب للمياه فى العام 2030 هي 39.01 مليون مترمكعب. يمكن استخدامها في حالات الطوارئ. قد صيغت استراتيجيات فعالة للمساهمة في تحقيق أهداف التنمية المستدامة لعام 2030 تركزعلى ضرورة الانتباه لإنتاج بيانات دقيقة عن استخدام المياه والطلب عليها، اتباع اليات ونهج متكامل لتخطيط وإدارة الأراضي وموارد المياه، التخطيط المتكامل لمستجمعات المياه و التدابير التشريعية. بالاضافة الي التصنيف الوطني للموارد المائية والآليات التي تعزز المساواة في الحصول على المياه لجميع المجتمعات. فضلا عن تعميم مراعاة منظورالنوع في إدارة الموارد المائية، التوعية العامة و تعزيز تكامل السياسات القطاعية والإقليمية المتعلقة بالمياه (المياه العابرة للحدود). بالإضافة إلى الاستراتيجيات المتعلقة بالجوانب المؤسسية. علاوة على الاستراتيجيات المتعلقة بالجوانب المالية التي تشمل استراتيجيات قائمة على السوق تشمل تسعير المياه. بالإضافة إلى الاستراتيجيات المتعلقة بالجوانب التكنولوجية التي تشمل الحد من المياه غيرالمحتسبة. اعادة تدويرالمياه. الاستخدام المترافق لادارة الطلب فى قطاع الزراعة فضلا عن الاستراتيجيات المتعلقة بالجوانب البيئية الى جانب نهج منع التلوث. وضع سياسات و اليات لادارة الكوارث تتضمن استراتيجيات بشأن درء الفيضانات والجفاف، والتأهب للتخفيف من آثار الكوارث والاستجابة لها.Item The Hydrogeology Of Jebl Mara Area With Special Emphasis On Water Quality,Western Sudan(Al Neelain University, 2004) Sami Hashim Mohamed MahmoudThe study area situated between longitude 24°.00'—25°.00' east and latitude l2°.30' and l4°.OO' north. The aim of the study is to cover the geology, hydrology with special emphasis on water quality (qualitative and quantitative). A field work was carried out several times to the study area as to collect water samples and field observations. Water samples from hand pumps, dug wells, wadis and hot springs were collected from the area in dry and wet season. Physical, chemical, and bacteriological analyses were done in different laboratories by applying standard methods given by A.P.H.A., and A.W.W.A., standard methods. Major cations, some, some trace elements and other water properties were examined for all samples in three recognized laboratories. Seasonal variation (dry & wet) of physico-chemical properties major cations, major anions, some trace elements shown by drawing seasonal variation graphs and aerial distribution maps of all elements. A comparison between water from wadis and hot springs was also done. The study revealed that samples from wells (hand & dug) consists of variable concentrations of ions all of them fall within the permissible limit given by Word Health Organization (W.H.O., 1984) except manganese, total iron zinc concentration were high and above the recommended values. Great deficiencies of iodine were detected throughout the study area (low or nil values) in all samples taken. About 95% of samples from wells (hand and dug) classified as Calcium-Sodium-Bicarbonate-Chloride type, and 5% as Calcium—Magnesium-Bicarbonate-Chloride type .Item Gold Mineralization and Impacts of Its Mining on Environment(Neelain University, 2011) Karimeldin. Z. Al SamauiAbstract Mining makes a significant contribution to the national economy and local communities. This research briefly places the contribution of gold mining into the context of the wider economy and then focuses on the impact of its mining on the environment. Broadly, Sudan is endowed with multi-metal resources of which gold is the most economically attractive mineral. The gold mineralization is found, widespread in Sudan and confined primarily to the Archaean basement rocks and the Late-Proterozoic greenschist belts of the Arabia-Nubian shield. The recent studies of the Nubian-Arabian greenstone indicated that the Ariab metallogenic province is becoming one of the premier areas in the world for the development of poly-metallic base metal sulfide deposits, which contain substantial economic gold potential. Moreover, the secondary re-worked placer concentrates and detritus small nuggets of the pre-existing gold mineralization, attracted most of the present indigenous activities. The rapid expansion of formal and indigenous gold mining activities, particularly in the event of gold rushes after boom increase of gold prices, constituted one of the recent dominant challenges to economics, social developments and regional environmental impacts. Ariab open pit and Gebeit abandoned mines, which exhibited different gold extraction techniques of two genetically different ore formations, were taken as two study cases in this research. The study was based.on_the hypothesis that, mining .operations in the study areas have damaging impacts on the natural environment due to cumulative negative impacts generated from mine acidic water, leaching of heavy minerals from mine waste, relic tailings and the associated chemical effluents into the ecosystem. The results of the study have identified several features showing, positive and negative impacts, which are rather paradoxical in nature. From one side, the mining activities supported the increase of the national economy with appreciable sustainable social development as in Ariab disnict, but on the other side, undeniable negative effects at the mining sites have also accompanied these activities. Based on defined criteria, the impacts of mining and mineral processing operations were classified of low impacts at Ariab, and comparatively high at Gebeit with diiferent magnitudes on the ecosystem and communities. The chemical analysis and statistical correlations showed that, the mineral concentrations in mine waste and processed heaps, exhibit distinctive, elevated concentrations exceeding the local background and global limits by 46.1 and 99.2 times in arsenic, 4.6 and 8.4 in copper and 8.1 and 12.1 in lead respectively. The correlations between heavy minerals, Pb/Zn, Pb/Cd and As/Cd in the study area have shown also peculiar reaction behaviors due to cyanide influence and the pH level existing. Most of the heavy metals existed in the form of stable carbonate compounds of copper, lead, zinc, cadmium and as oxides of chromium, arsenic and antimony. However the drainage soil around Ariab gold mining sites has showed insignificant heavy metal pollution or acidification, derived fi'om the operation. That was, attributed to the advanced technology used and management control exerted during the mining operation. The qualitative and quantitative review of the heavy metals are presenting high elevated concentration values in the central zone where mining and processing were performed compared with the normal background (threshold) concentrations at up-stream zone. The down-stream zone concentration values were showing a close and analogous mineral distribution to the local backgroimd (threshold) and global concentration limits. This phenomenon has concluded with facts that the influence and the effects of heavy metals generated from mine waste, heap-leached tailings and mine acid water on the ecosystem is negligible. In contrast, abandoned mines tend to have far more extensive and accumulated impacts to the environment context. The dust emission has been, significantly reduced by the new installation of dust suckers and the surveillance results of dust threats on resident’s health is insignificant. Although indigenous mining has positive socio-economic contributions, but it also contributes to land degradation, loss of biodiversity, destruction of natural resources, deforestation , water and soil mercury pollution . The study showed that it is difficult to prevent pollution altogether during mining, but it is advisable to determine the optimal level of pollution or pollution connol by balancing the cost and threats of polluting activities against the improvement of the national economy and social development as strategy.Item GEOTECHNICAL PROPERTIES OF SUB-SOIL AND GEOTECHNICAL MAPPING OF AL-KHOBAR- DHAHRAN-DAIVHVIAM AREA, KSA(Neelain University, 2015) KAMAL MOHAMMAD ALIFADLALLAHABSTRACT The geotechnical properties of subsurface soil and rock formations of Khobar - Dhahran and parts of Dammam city , covering an area of about 675 sq.km were investigated during this study. ~ The geotechnical properties were determined through field and laboratory tests. Field testing was conducted by SPT; standard penetration tests, CPT, cone penetration test and PMT, pressuremeter tests. The- index properties as grain’ size analysis , moisture content and plasticity limits were determined in the laboratory . Strength tests as unconfined compressive strength , undrained shear strength as well as one dimensional consolidation properties were also determined . The chemical properties of soil and water samples were also analyzed . Soil types encountered within the study area were determined depending on their geotechnical properties. The study area is divided into four zones of similar properties . ' I Zone I , is a very loose to loose, saturated, sabkha soil, that consist mainly of poorly graded sand, silty sand, sandy silt and sandy clay. Vertical and horizontal extent of this material indicated that soils within zone I are mainly characterized by low bearing capacity and higher settlement. These loose bearing strata , needs to be improved before constructing even light structures as one to two storied villas , on them. Soil improvement within zone I can be done by preloading, dynamic compaction or use of stone columns. The method of soil improvement should be selected based on soil type and thickness , type of structure and loads as well as economy . Zone II , covers the coastal plain of AL-Khobar city and parts of Dammam city. Soils encountered in this stripvare, backfill and reclaimed soil ‘in the upper 2m, followed by loose sand till a depth of about 7m and dense sand till a depth of 15m to 18m. Stifl' to hard clay layers were encountered below dense sand till a depth of about 50m below existing ground surface. Zone HI covers an area of about 300sq.krn. Two major soil types were encountered in this area, the residual calcareous soils and the sand deposits. Residual calcareous soils are the product of weathering of parent calcareous rocks in the area. Sand deposits are mainly wind-blown sand that deposited on outcropping rocks, wadis or covering residual soils. Both residual soil and sa.nd deposits are dense/hard and rarely loose or sofi. Zone IV, is mainly covered by outcropping calcareous rocks of the central part of Dammam Dome. Most of these rocks belong to Rus and Dammam formation. The major rock types encountered in Zone IV are limestone , marlstone and shale. Limestone i_s generally light cream, moderately weathered, fractured, voided, partly cavemous and moderately weak to strong. Marlstone is highly to moderately weathered, fractured and voided rock with very poor to poor RQD and moderately weak to moderately strong . Shale is mostly belonging to Salia and Medra members of Dammam formation. It is highly weathered, fractured, less voided with very poor to poor RQD and weak to moderately weak strength. Groundwater was encountered at an average depth of 1.0m within sabkha flat , at a depth of 1.74m in Zone II and a depth of 3.15m in Zone III . Groundwater is generally below 10m in Zone IV . The chemical analysis of both soil and water fiom different zones , show a high to very high concentration of salts ( TDS , chloride and sulphates). These high concentrations of salts, give rise to a very aggressive and corrosive ‘environment whereby good quality concrete using sulphate resisting cement, pozzolanic materials , corrosion inhibitors and suitable water proofing membranes and sutable concrete covers are required. A multipurpose, comprehensive, medium scale geotechnicall engineering geological map is prepared. This map is considered useful, valuable and l'16lpfi1lfO1' planners, developers, designers as well as researchers interested in the area. " It is highly recommended to extent this work to cover other parts of Dammam city and its tenitories as Sihat , Qatif and Ras Tanura . A hazardous map showing locations of cavernous rocks , uncontrolled fills and liquefiable soil is also prepared . Since settlement is the controlling design criteria for cohesionless soils, other than bearing capacity , it is estimated following Burland & Burbridge (1985) , semi-empirical procedure which gives reliable values for design of shallow foundations in most areas . Standard penetration test results obtained from some -‘sites , were correlated with modulus of elasticity from pressuremeter tests conducted on the same sites . The correlated values were used in estimation of settlement and values obtained are very close to those of Burland & Burbridge method .Item Assessement of Integrated Geophysical Groundwater Prospecting Methods ON Basement Comiplex Aqutfersin NE Nuba Mountains - Sudan(جامعة النيلين, 2007) NUHA ELZEIN MOHAMED.r.;- I r .e | ~ Abstract A _,.~~ Integrated geophysical methods were applied to map the groundwater aquifers on complex geological settings, in the crystalline basement terrain in northeast Nuba Mountains, which are structurally controlled. The water flow is controlled by the northwest-southeast extensional faults as one of several in-situ deformational patterns that are attributed to the collisioniof the Pan-African oceanic assemblage dfthe Nubian shield against the pre-Pan African continental crust to the west. The used assessments are the electrical resistivity tomography (ERT), very low frequency-resistivity (VLF-R), and the audio magneto telluric (AMT) soundings, vertical electrical soundings (VES) in addition to water quality analysis and petrophysical measurements. These measurements were designed to be overlapped in order to prove the reproducibility of the geophysical data and to provide better interpretation of the hydrogeological setting in the aquifer complex structure. Different inversion schemes, accomplished by means of a cluster analysis, were attempted for the synthetic and observed ERT data to study their reliability to map the different geometries in the complex subsurface such as fault and graben structures. The sedimentary sequence is not symmetrical due the seasonal variations of the flow direction. Variations of the basement types were also recorded by their resistivity values and consequently their weathered products influence the water quality. The VLF-R data with Transverse Electric (TE) mode has been collected using the transmission stations GBR, GBZ and RHA of frequencies 16.0, l9.6 and 23.4 kHz respectively and it was two dimension (ZD) laterally-constrained inverted in a smoothly 2D resistivity distribution model after manual incorporation of a priori data . The inverted ERT and VLF-R lines confirmed the fracture zones and the deeper basins. Eight AMT soundings were acquired. True resistivity values and their relevant thickness were calculated and viewed as three dimension (3D) surface images. The VES data was conducted, where ERT survey was not accessible, and inverted smoothly and merged with the ERT in the 3D resistivity grid. Synthetic magnetotellurics MT data enabled us to test the inconsistencies between die interpreted geophysical results and the geologic expectations across AlBetira fold. Hydrochemical analysis (analyses) was applied to 42 water samples collected from the (hand) dug wells in the study area. Extremely high saline zones due to different reasons were recorded. Petrophysical measurements of an artificial saturated aquifer, using different soil types and various water salinities, provided a range for the porosity, formation factor and resistivity of the bulk formation and the later can be represented in terms of grain size distribution. A combination between the electric conductivity (EC) data and iso-resistivity horizons provides a better resolution of the target aquifer location, type and grain size distribution. The formation factor I was estimated from the EC map and the corresponded bulk resistivity from the depth slices (W) and it varies from 1 to 6.7, except of Abu Gebiha which reaches 18. This result is confirmed by the previous petrophysical measurements and in addition to the water quality analysis, drainage pattems, and faults locations derived from VLF-R and ERT data. New target aquifers were suggested in the north eastem part of Al Terter area and along both Khor Baggara and Khor BanGadid in Al Betira area with respect to the water quality in both localities, and the southem pans of AbuGebiha town is considered as reasonable targets for groundwater supply. iiItem GEOTECHNICAL INVESTIGATION AND FOUNDATION RECOMMENDATIONS FOR JEDDAH CITY THE KINGDOM OF SAUDI ARABIA(Neelain University, 2008) SOLEIMAN HASSAN KODEIHThis thesis presents the findings of the geotechnical investigation of the subsurface conditions that have been conducted for the Jeddah City that located at the central western sector of The Kingdom of Saudi Arabia. The work was carried out to fulfill the requirements ofdoctorate degree in Engineering Geology for Jeddah area in Saudi Arabia by Al Neelain University — Graduate College -, Sudan. The field investigation was performed from October 05, 2005 through March 14, 2007. The field investigation work was carried out by mainly drilling fifty one (51) boreholes distributed at six (6) zones depending on the type of subsurface formations encountered. The zones locations are as follow: 0 Zone l: north west of Jeddah 0 Zone 2: central north east of Jeddah 0 Zone 3: south west of Jeddah Q Zone 4: central south of J eddah v Zone 5: east of Jeddah I Zone 6: central north of Jeddah Generally, Residual soil was encountered at the area of zone two and zone four and coralline formations was found at the location of zone one, three and six. Rocky formation was encountered at the area of zone five at the eastern sector of Jeddah area. The residual soils are composed of brown to light brown, medium dense to very dense, silty or clayey sand with gravel and/or some cobbles and located at the eastern sector before the mountain area (zone 5)Item The impact of water pollution on White Nile Water quality and fisheries at Khartoum state(Neelain University, 2011) ABD ELGADIR MOHAMED AHMED MAN OFALAbstract , A ' This study was carried out during February 2009-August 2010 to investigate the impacts of sewage and industrial disposal from Elauzozab musruf into the White Nile around Khartoum on water quality, planktonic community and accumulationvlevels of Cd and Pb in fish (Orechromis niloticus). ' ' Samples-of water and plankton were taken monthly from four sites: J ebel Aulia (upstream),Al musraf, Elauzozab (disposal site), Almogran (downstream). _ Samples of water -for'physical and chemical analysis, Gills of fish (Orechromis nil0ticus)_~were examined for accumulation level of Cd and Pb as biological indicators of water pollution. The result revealed: ‘. . ' i At the disposal site and downstream sewage effluent increased conductivity (sss umho), TDS (492 mg/L), TSS (137 mg/L), BOD (30 mg/L), COD (56 mg/L), P04-P (0.46mg/L), NO;-N (l2mg/L), Cf! (0.54mg/L), Cd= (o.s6 mg/L), Pb = (0.45 mg/L) and depleted dissolved oxygen (4_mg/L). The maximum planktonic growth occurred in winter 2010 whereas the minimum growth rates recorded in summer and July 2010 and almost disappeared in autumn 2009(August to October). The pattern of abundance in phytoplankton was almost reversed, due of many diatoms replaced by blue green algae and the appearance of Euglenophyceae. In Zooplankton copepods dominated over cladocerans and Rotifers which were of less abundance . The accumulation levels of Cd and Pb in Orechromis niloticus gills confirm the presence of high significant levels of Cd (1.518 ug\g) and Pb (2.l65ug\g) lthle concentration of Cd and Pb in water and fish gills exceeds the permitted limits by WHO and Sudanese standard for drinking water guideline.(Cr,0.005mg/1, Cd=0.005mg/1, Pb=0.05mg/l) . _ The finding contributes to understanding of distribution and dynamics‘ of pollutants in the White Nile ecosystemsItem Evaluation of the Coastal Plain Aquifer Physical Parameters in Gaza Strip(Al Neelain University, 2005) Samir Khalil ShaathGaza Strip like some other parts of the Middle East countries has distinct and serious deficit in water. Currently, there is a water sholftag problem for most of the Gaza Strip’s residents. The quality of consulmfed water has very grave problems, as some bacteriological contamination, lasl well as increase in nitrates and chlorides to levels which already have been above the safety limit. Further more it is forecasted that the quantity of available water, which is already scarce, may drop to incompatible levelsl with an acceptable standard of living, public health, social and economid development in the region. To solve the quantity shortage problem in Gaza Strip, correct data about the physical aquifer parameters should be available. Si-ace; hydrogeological studies about Gaza Strip aquifer are not available; an' accurate scientific research will present the basis of figuring the aquifer parameters, which may help in calculating the amount of stored water in the aquifer and can be performed in the lield by either direct method, or by indirect method. Every aquifer has its own physical parameters (Characteristics), as Porosity (E), Transmissivity (T), and Storage Coefficient (S), these physical parameters control the fluids passage through the aquifer. To study any aquifer, we must calculate the aquifer phvsical parameters by executing some tests and analyze their results, from these tests the. pumping test can be used. The aim of this research is to find some physical characteristics for; the Coastal Plain Aquifer in Gaza Strip. as values for Transmissivity (T) and Storage Coefficient (S). l I This study showed that, the water quantity is decreasing year after year, and the quality of water is in continuous deteriorating. There are some suggestions to increase the water quantity in the reservoir, and it is recommended to decrease the usage of \vater and use the water wisely.Item REMOTE SENSING AND GIS APPLICATIONS IN GEOLOGICAL MAPPING, PROSPECTING FOR MINERAL DEPOSITS AND GROUNDWATER-BERBER SHEET AREA, NORTHERN SUDAN(Al Neelain University, 2006-09) SAMI OMER HAG EL KHIDIRThe geology of the East Bayuda Desert —Abiydia (Berber Sheet, NE-36-G) area in the north Sudan, has been investigated by means of remote sensing and Geo-Information System (GIS) techniques and limited geotraverses. Digital image processing of Landsat ETM+7 data and geo-spatial analysis were conducted to evaluate the use of remotely sensed data in geological mapping, mineral prospecting and hydrogeological investigation in such arid terranes. The study area represents a part of Bayuda terrane, and comprises Basement Complex rocks of Neoproterozoic age. The lithologies include the high-grade gneisses and migmatites, dismembered ophiolitic basic-ultrabasic rocks, metavolcanosedimentary sequence and supracrustal metasediments. These units have been intruded by syn- to late- and post-orogenic intrusions during and afler the Pan-African orogeny. Phanerozoic sedimentary Formations cover the Basement Complex rocks, which in turn have been covered by Cainozoic basaltic volcanics. Most of these units have been covered in parts by Quatemary Nile silts, alluvial deposits and / or aeolian sand sheets. The East African Orogen has been manifested in the study area. The collision between the west and east Gondwanaland continents resulted in at least five deformational phases, which can be traced in Satellite image. The three ductile and two brittle deformational phases result from the collision of the Bayuda terrane with Halfa and Gabgaba terranes. The first discemible deformational phase displayed by the isoclinal folds with E-W fold axis. These folds were refolded by close folds in NE-SW fold-axis fold. A third phase of open folds refolded the earlier fold with E-W fold axis. The ductile deformation has been followed by brittle deformational phase. The NE-SW trend Nakasib shear affected earlier structures, which in tum has been superimposed by N-S trend Keraf shear zone. Digital image processing was conducted to enhance the visual interpretation of the Landsat ETM+7 data. The IHS (Intensity-Hue —Saturation) transformation of the decorrelated stretched bands yielded an overall good lithologic discrimination. The two colour composite images 7, 4, l and 7, 5, 4 have been decorrelated stretched and then IHS transformed with the panchromatic band. The two colour composite images display well saturated hues and morphological signatures, which make them the best in discriminating various lithological units. The Principal Component transformations yield saturated images and resulted in a higher signal-to — noise ratio when standardized coefficients were used instead of the covariance matrices. Band ratioing images yielded geologically informative images, where both spectral and morphological information are preserved. Selective merged images were used by combined in the red-green-blue colour gun different and theless correlated images from various techniques. Colour composite images Litho-l, Litho-2 and drainage-image have been built. The Litho-1 colour composite image utilizes the PC2 (of the six bands) in red, band ratio 5/7 in green and DC2 (of bands 5, 4 & 3) in blue. The Litho-2 colour composite image utilizes PC2 (of the six bands) in red, DC2 (of bands 5, 4 & 3) in green and band ratio 3/1 *5/7 in blue. The drainage colour composite image utilizes band ratio 5/7, DC2 (of bands 5, 4 & 3), PC5 (of the six bands) in red, green and blue, respectively. These saturated and morphological expressed images display well discrimination ability of diverse lithological unit and structural elements. On the hand the drainage image created by selecting the band ratio 5/7, DC2 (of bands 5, 4 & 3) and PC5 (of the six bands) in the R, G and B, respectively. It was found that this image is superior in delineation the alluvial in the wadies, thus it was used mainly in mapping them. Geological map of Berber Sheet (scale of l:250000) has been produced utilizing the Geo- Berber database. The Geo-Berber includes the digitally processed remotely sensed data, field work and structural and petrographical data. These data combined with demographic data. The SRTM data provide the base for the elevation data in the geo-database. The extracted DEM render the 3D terrane visual image that assists the lithological discrimination by its morphological expression. The geo-spatially analysed lineaments data used in the Geo-Berber database have been produced by the spatial and structural analyses of the edge enha.nced- filtered Landsat images. Prospecting for mineral deposits has been exploited using the spectral criteria of the gossans and rock alteration associated with mineralization. The geo-spatially analysed- supervised classified colour composite images of Crosta (Feature Oriented Principal Components image) and Sabin’s ratio image proved to support the demarcation of the mineralization. The results are found to be controlled with the level of erosion as witnessed in the deeply eroded terranes as in the East Bayuda Desert and Abidiya areas. In the mineralized Ariab-NW Nakasib area that is characterized by low-level of erosion, the technique revealed optimum results in depicting the gossans. This malfunction in the remote sensing-GIS mineral prospecting model can be overcome by combining other geological and structural information in the geo-spatial analysis. A remote sensing-GIS model for depicting fractures and structurally-controlled aquifers in crystalline rocks prove to guide the prospecting of groundwater in Basement Complex terrane of the East Bayuda Desert. Digital image processing, lineament analysis and geo- spatial analysis combined with ground geophysical investigation gave best possible results as documented by the drilling activities.Item Digital Image Processing of Landsat7 data and GIS Application for Geological Investigation in Jebel Erba Area, _ Red Sea Hills, NE Sudan _(Al Neelain University, 2006-09) Ibrahim Ahmed Ali BabikirDigital image ‘processing and Geographic Information System techniques, together with a limited reconnaissance ground truthing, have been used to investigate the geology of the area around J. Erba and J. Oda of the Sudanese‘ Red Sea Hills (RSH). The methodology fulfilled and the procedures followed during this study enabled the establishment of geodatabase named GeoRSl-I and the production of two geological maps of scale l:250,000. The area of study occupies the central part of RSH of Sudan that belongs to the Nubian Sector of the Arabian-Nubian Shield (ANS). It forms part of the Gebeit terrain that is known to be created among the other four terrains of NE Sudan (Tokar, Heya, Gabgaba and Geri) during the Pan-African event (950-50OMa) due to subduction-related processes and collisional tectonics and sutured together byidismembered-ophiolite belts and major shear zones. The geology of the area comprises high-grade gneisses, volcanosedimentary sequences metamorphosed in the greenschist facies, all intruded by syn and syn-to-late orogenic calc-alkaline intrusives and post-orogenic alkaline bimodal gabbro-granite complexes. The coastal plain is geologically characterized by Cenozoic siliciclastic and shallow marine rift- related sedimentary sequences. Pliocene-Pleistocene is represented by the thick older gravel unit and the emergent linear reef terraces. I - - i Several digital image processing techniques have been implemented to enhance the Landsat7 ETM+ digital satellite data. A Digital mosaic that covers almost all the Sudanese Red Sea Hills has been created using nine Landsat7 scenes. A 3x3 high-pass filtered color composite image with a central coefficient of 16 proves to create the most optimized images that appear relatively brighter and more saturated. Four color composite triplets of band ratio images; B3/B5, B3/B1, B5/B7; B5/B7, B5/B4, B3/Bl; B5/B7, B5/B1, (B3/B4)(B5/B4) and B5/B7, B3/Bl, B4/B3, have been composed to assist geological mapping. Directed band ratioing of the ratio color composite (B5/B7, B5/B4, B3/Bl) resulted in a well enhanced image that is characterized by satisfying saturated colors,‘ strong retention of ‘topographic expression and well pronounced lithological discrimination. Unstandardized and standardized principal component analyses have been done using the six reflected bands as well as a four selected bands. Some of their resulted images show relatively clear Landcover differentiation. Detailed lineaments investigation has been done using high-pass filtered, directional-filtered images as well aslthne DEM. The lineaments ofithe study area show a clear bimodal pattern where a dominant N-S (360° i 10°) and subdominant E-W (90° i 10°) trend. The N-S lineaments are attributed to the shear fracture system that resulted from Heya-Gebeit terrain collisional episode and the NW-SE compressional forces that prevailed during the Neoproterozoic time. The E-W trending lineaments have been interpreted to result from the locally deflected, landward extension and propagation of the Red Sea rift-related transform faults. Dykes and dyke swarms present in the study area display a prominent unimodalpattern with a prominent E-W direction. These dykes were probably emplaced during a compressive condition with a minimum principal compressive stress that trends 350°-360°. This direction corresponds to the main direction of the N-S trending Pan‘-African sinistral master faults related to Onib-Sol Hamid and Baraka major shear zones. Shuttle Radar Topography Mission (SRTM) data of 90m resolution that covers the study area have been Well utilized. Contour maps, shaded relief images as well as 3D scenes have been deduced from the SRTM data. The 3D scenes enhanced the visualization of the different geospatial data stored in the constructed geodatabase. A GIS-based geodatabase (GeoRSH) has been designed for the study area. It is structured to include all the available spatial data that have been stored in four group layers namely; the Infrastructure, Topography, Geology and Processed Satellite data group layers. GIS cartography has been implemented" to assist the final design of the two geological maps of scale l:250,000. The final layout of the two maps has been prepared in a GIS framework.